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Biological Positivism. Lombroso and his Atavistic Criminals. Theoretical Criminology. Social Deviance Constructs. It's all familiar now. But there was a time when it wasn't. After throwing together all the little bits and pieces of paper, all the print outs, all the glossary terms and definitions I could find, from my undergraduate years on through, combined with significant internet resources, I have compiled a list of definitions, in keeping with the theme of the site, which will be listed alphabetically in different sections. Many of these definitions come from the glossaries of social science research books and they cover areas from behvioral science to criminal law and forensic anthropology. Sources include various Dictionaries of Criminal Theory and Criminal Thought, the Online Dictinary of Social Science, and Forensic Psychology Dictionaries. Please keep in mind that my listing of these definitions does not necessarily mean that I am endorsing their 'correctness'. Now, I present to you, for your viewing pleasure, whilst by no means all inclusive, the 'A' List.
ABASEMENT
The need to comply, surrender, confess, or atone. A need to accept punishment.
ABSOLUTE LIABILITY
Where an individual may be held liable for a breech of the law without the requirement that criminal intent (mens rea) be proven by the prosecution. Usually the illegal action will be one that is manifestly damaging to the public interest. These offenses are most likely found in regulatory law. A captain found with undersize lobster in the hold of a fishboat, for example, has no opportunity to claim lack of knowledge or that he had no intent to catch them.
ACTION THEORY
A sociological perspective that focuses on the individual as a subject and views social action as something purposively shaped by individuals within a context to which they have given meaning. This approach has its foundations in Max Weber's (1864-1920) ‘interpretive sociology’ which claims that it is necessary to know the subjective purpose and intent of the actor before an observer can understand the meaning of social action. Those sociologists who focus on ‘action’ tend to treat the individual as an autonomous subject, rather than as constrained by social structure and culture. As a subject, the individual is seen as exercising agency, voluntarism, giving meaning to objects and events and acting with intent. While Max Weber insisted on the power of society and historical context in giving shape to human action, some sociologists adopting action theory have been accused of neglecting the influence of social structure and culture on people's behaviour.
ACTUS REUS
One of two components of a crime, the other being mens rea. Actus reus refers to the physical component of a crime, the act of committing the crime (eg: actually taking the stereo from someone's house). Mens rea , in contrast, is the mental component of crime, the existence of a criminal intent, and this requires the offender to have intended to carry out the physical act. Both components are required for conviction under criminal law although for some other laws, called laws of absolute liability, only the physical component is required.
AGGRESSION
The goal directed behaviour of harming another living being. The behaviour may be indirect (upset person may break a window rather then hit some one) or displaced to someone else (road rage).
AGGRESSION MACHINE
The apparatus used to measure physical aggression in a laboratory.
ALIENATION
A separation of individuals from control and direction of their social life. The term was used widely in German philosophy in the 18th and 19th centuries, but it has become important for sociology through the ideas of Karl Marx (1818-1883). Marx claimed that human alienation was created by a socially structured separation between humans and their work. This separation reached its highest intensity in capitalist society where the great mass of the population depended for subsistence on working under the direction of others. In the capitalist workplace, individuals were separated from ownership, control and direction of their work and were unable to achieve personal creative expression. The competitive nature of the workplace also alienated, or separated, workers from each other.
ALTRUISM
Social behaviour and value orientation in which individuals give primary consideration to the interests and welfare of other individuals, members of groups or the community as a whole. The term was used by Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) to describe a suicide committed for the benefit of others or for the community: this would include self-sacrifice for military objectives in wartime. Sociobiologists argue that altruistic behaviour has its roots in self-interest, the unconscious desire to protect one's genetic heritage. Critics of sociobiology respond that altruism is evident between individuals and in social situations where people are completely unrelated genetically and claim that human conduct and motivations cannot be explained without reference to the values and norms of culture.
AMPLIFICATION OF DEVIANCE
Developed by Leslie Wilkens, this term is used more frequently in Britain than in North America. Deviance amplification refers to the unintended outcome of moral panics or social policies designed to prevent or reduce deviance. Typically, the attention given to deviance by the media and moral entrepreneurs serves to attract new recruits and provides them with a definition of what the public expects, thus amplifying the amount of deviance in society.
ANAL EROTICISM
Erotic/sexual pleasure from activities associated with stimulation of the anal region. Studies have linked such eroticism to aggression towards the individual being penetrated.
ANGER
An emotional reaction elicited by a number of unique stimulus, including restraint, aggression, threat, attack, and frustration. Anger is characterized by a strong autonomic nervous system response, particularly the sympathetic component.
ANOMIA
A social psychological condition, rather than a societal condition which ‘anomie’ refers to, characterized by a breakdown in values and a feeling of isolation. This term has proved much easier to measure than has Durkheim's concept of ‘anomie’.
ANOMIE
A concept developed by Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) to describe an absence of clear societal norms and values. Individuals lack a sense of social regulation: people feel unguided in the choices they have to make. Anomie can occur in several different situations. For example, the undermining of traditional values may result from cultural contact. The concept can be helpful in partially understanding the experience of colonized Aboriginal peoples as their traditional values are disrupted, yet they do not identify with the new cultural values imposed upon them: they lose a sense of authoritative normative regulation. Durkheim was also concerned that anomie might arise from a lack of consensus over social regulation of the workplace. American sociologist Robert Merton (1910- ) used the term more narrowly to refer to a situation where people's goals - what they wanted to achieve - were beyond their means. Their commitment to the goal was so strong that they would adopt deviant means to achieve it. He argued that American society - perhaps more strongly than other capitalist societies - held out the goal of personal wealth and success to all its citizens. It placed extremely high value on the attainment of wealth and high social status. Materialistic goals were so stressed in society, Merton argued, that those groups in society who did not believe in their chance of success through conventional avenues ( a good education, good job, good income, etc.), because they were poor or otherwise lacked opportunity, were induced toward unconventional routes to attain wealth - including crime. The social norms against crime were sometimes too weakly implanted in individuals to restrain them from seeking to fulfill the value of economic success through criminal means. They wanted to win the game without regard to the rules. More recently, anomie, has been used in a more individually-focused way to talk about problems of immigrant youth when faced with a new culture or about the identity crises which often erupt during the age transition from youth to adult. Durkheim's use of the term -’lack of social regulation’- remains the standard definition.
ANTHROPOLOGY - PHYSICAL
A specialisation within the discipline of anthropology centred on the scientific study of the origins and development of human beings through analysis of fossil and skeletal remains.
ANTHROPOLOGY- SOCIAL
Also referred to as cultural anthropology , this discipline is conceptually and theoretically similar to sociology. Anthropology originally developed as the study of non-western cultures but many anthropologists now study western societies and the disciplines of sociology and anthropology have been tending to converge.
ANTISOCIAL PERSONALITY DISORDER
A personality disorder that involves disregard for the rights or others, as well as impulsive, irresponsible and aggressive behaviour. Characterized by a number of deviant acts, which may include delinquency, truancy, theft, promiscuity, vandalism, fighting, poor work record, impulsiveness, irrationality, reckless behavior, and aggressiveness.
ASSUMPTION OF DISCRIMINATING TRAITS
The view that offenders are distinguished from non-offenders by, for example, their high levels of impulsivity and aggression.
ASSUMPTION OF OFFENDER DEFICIT
The view that offenders against the law have some psychological deficit that distinguishes them from normal law abiding citizens.
ATAVISM
A tendency to reproduce ancestral type in plants and in animals; to resemble one's grandparents or great-grandparents more than parents. In popular speech, a ‘throw back’. This concept was used by Cesare Lombroso (1835-1909) to describe a type of criminal he called the born criminal. The atavistic criminal was one representing an earlier stage of human evolution (thus representing the ancestral type more than the parental type). This ancestral type was identified by Lombroso through several stigmatized physical characteristics - including the length of ear lobes and fingers and the bone structure of the head. This supposed physical degeneracy was associated with moral degeneracy and thus more frequent criminal behaviour. These physical stigmata were not found to be especially associated with criminals and this particular theory of criminality was rejected.
AUTOEROTICISM
Sexual gratification or arousal in the absence of a partner.
AUTOMATISM
An act performed unconsciously. Defendants have been found innocent due to an automatism defense (i.e., homicide while sleepwalking).
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